Angela Belcher:利用自然病毒增长电池功能

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http://dotsub.com/view/c2366457-df34-4170-8478-b1ab00cfdc56
Angela Belcher:利用自然病毒增长电池功能
我以为我会谈谈如何使材料的性质一点。我把和我一起一鲍鱼壳。这鲍鱼壳是生物复合材料的百分之98，按质量碳酸钙和两个大规模蛋白率。然而，它的3000倍，其地质对口强硬。而很多人可能会使用像鲍鱼壳结构，像粉笔。我一直着迷于如何使材料的性质，而且有很多的序列如何做这样一个精致的工作。部分原因是这些材料的宏观结构，但它们在纳米形成。他们正在形成的纳米级，他们使用由基因水平，使他们能够建造这些真的精致编码的蛋白质结构。
所以，一句话，我认为是非常着迷的是，如果你能给生活非生物结构如电池和太阳能电池一样，？如果他们有什么的，一个鲍鱼壳做的，能够真正建立在室温和室内压力精致的结构，使用无毒化学品和没有加入到环境中有毒物质条件后，同样的一些功能？所以这是理想，我一直在想什么。还等什么，如果你能生长在皮氏培养皿电池？或者，如果你可以给一个电池的遗传信息，使其能够真正成为一个更好的时间函数，并以环境友好的方式呢？
因此，要回本鲍鱼壳除了纳米结构，有一点令人着迷的是，当一男一女鲍鱼走到一起，他们的遗传信息，上面写着：“这是如何建立一个精致的材料通过。以下是如何做到在常温常压下它，使用无毒材料。“同样的，硅藻，这是照在这里，这是glasseous结构。每次硅藻复制，他们给的遗传信息，上面写着：“这是如何建立在海洋这完全纳米结构的玻璃。你可以做一遍又一遍相同的，一次。”所以如果你可以做一个太阳能电池或电池是一回事吗？我喜欢说我最喜欢的生物材料是我的四个岁。
但是，任何谁的过，或者知道，小的孩子知道他们是极其复杂的有机体。所以，如果你想说服他们做一些他们不想做，这是非常困难的。因此，当我们想到未来的技术，我们其实是想利用细菌和病毒，简单的有机体。你能说服他们与一个新的工具箱，让他们可以建立一个结构，将是重要的吗？
此外，我们认为对未来的技术。我们从地球开始。基本上，它采取​​了亿年的地球生命。而且非常迅速，他们成了多细胞，他们可以复制，他们可以使用他们作为获得能源的方式光合作用。但直到大约500万年前 - 在寒武纪地质时期 - 海洋生物，在开始生产硬质材料。在此之前，他们都柔软，蓬松的结构。它是在此期间，有增加的环境中钙，铁和硅的时间。和有机体学会了如何硬质材料。所以这就是我想能够做的事情 - 生物学的说服工作与周期表的其余部分。
现在，如果你在生物学看，都像是DNA和蛋白质，核糖体抗体和许多你听说过那已经纳米结构的结构。因此大自然已经给了我们真正的纳米级结构精致。如果我们能够利用他们，说服他们不要成为艾滋病毒抗体，不喜欢的东西？但是，如果我们能说服他们能够为我们的太阳能电池？因此，这里有一些例子：这些都是一些天然贝壳。
有天然的生物材料。鲍鱼壳在这里 - 如果你破坏它，你可以看看事实，即它的纳米结构。有做出来的SiO2硅藻，他们正在趋磁细菌更小，单域用于导航磁铁。所有这些有什么共同点是这些材料是在纳米结构，以及它们的DNA序列编码的蛋白质序列，蓝图，使他们能够建造这些真奇妙结构。现在，回到了鲍鱼壳，鲍鱼，使这些蛋白质通过让这个shell。这些蛋白质是非常带负电荷。而钙可以拉出来，他们的环境，放下了钙层，然后碳酸盐，钙和碳酸盐。它的氨基酸序列，其中的化学说：“这是如何建立的结构。下面的DNA序列，这里的蛋白序列，以便做到这一点。”于是一个有趣的想法是，如果你可以采取任何您想要的，或周期表上的任何元素，并找到其相应的DNA序列，然后代码为相应的蛋白质序列，以建立一个结构，但不建一鲍鱼壳 - 构建东西，通过性质，一直没有机会一起工作呢。
所以这里的元素周期表。而且我绝对喜欢元素周期表。对于每一个在麻省理工学院的一年级的一年，我有一个周期表中提出，上面写着：“欢迎来到麻省理工学院。现在你在你的元素是。”而你翻转过来，它的PH值在与他们有不同的收费氨基酸。所以我给这出成千上万的人。而且我知道它说麻省理工学院，加州理工学院，这是，但我有一对额外的，如果人们想要的。而且我真的很幸运，奥巴马总统访问了他访问我的实验室今年麻省理工学院，我真的想给他一个元素周期表。所以我在晚上熬夜，我跟我丈夫说：“我怎么给总统奥巴马元素周期表？如果他说，'噢，我已经有一个，'或者'我已经记住它？' “于是，他来到我的实验室参观和环顾四周 - 这是一个伟大的访问。然后后来，我说：“先生，我想给你的周期表的情况下你是否曾在绑定，需要计算分子量。”而且我认为分子量听起来远不如摩尔质量书呆子。因此，他看了看，他说：“谢谢你。我会定期看它。” （众笑）（鼓掌），后来在一次演讲，他在清洁能源了，他拉出来，说：“和麻省理工学院的人，他们给予定期的表。”
所以基本上我没有告诉你们的是，大约500万年前，生物起动机制造材料，但他们花了大约5千万年获得擅长。他们花了约50万多年的学习如何如何完善，使该鲍鱼壳。这是一个很难推销的研究生。 “我有一个伟大的工程 - 。五千万年”因此，我们必须制定一个试图这样做更迅速的方式。所以我们使用一个病毒的一种无毒所谓的M13噬菌体的病毒的工作是感染细菌。那么它有一个简单的DNA结构，你可以去剪切并粘贴到它额外的DNA序列。而这样做的话，它允许病毒蛋白表达随机序列。
这是很容易生物技术。基本上，你可以做到这一点一亿次。所以你可以去，有一亿元，都是不同的病毒基因完全相同，但他们是从他们的小费基础各不相同，在一个序列中的一个蛋白质编码。现在，如果你采取一切亿元病毒，你可以把一滴液体，则可以迫使他们进行互动与任何你想要的周期表。并通过选择进化过程中，你可以拉一亿元做什么，你希望它做一个，像长电池或长出了太阳能电池。
所以基本上，病毒不能复制自己，他们需要一个主机。一旦你发现一个一亿元的，你感染到细菌的吧，你让数百万的特定序列拷贝数十亿美元。这样一来，其他的东西，是关于生物学是生物学的美丽让你真漂亮精致的链接尺度结构。而这些病毒很长，瘦的，我们可以让他们表达能力的增长如半导体或电池材料的东西。
现在这是一个高能量电池，我们在我的实验室增长。我们设计一个病毒拿起碳纳米管。所以有部分病毒抓起碳纳米管。该病毒的其他部分有一个序列，可以成长为一个电池电极材料。然后它本身电线到当前收藏家。所以，通过选择进化的过程中，我们从有一个病毒，作出了糟糕电池一种病毒，取得了良好的电池，一种病毒，取得了破纪录的高功率电池，一切都在室温下作出的，基本上在板凳上。而且电池去了白宫新闻发布会。我把它在这里。你可以看到在这种情况下 - 这是此LED照明。现在，如果我们能规模这个问题，可以用它来运行您的普锐斯，这是我的梦想 - 能够驾驶病毒动力车。
但它基本上 - 你可以拉出来的一个亿。你可以利用它大量扩增。基本上，你让一个在实验室放大。然后你得到它的自组装成类似电池的结构。我们能够做到，这也与催化作用。这是光催化分解水的例子。而我们已经能够做的是一个病毒工程师基本上采取吸收染料分子和线病毒的表面，因此它们作为天线的行为，你会得到一个全面的病毒能量转移。然后，我们给它一个成长的第二个基因无机材料，可用于分离成氧和氢的水，可用于清洁燃料的使用。而且我带的，今天我举个例子。我的学生答应我，它会工作。这些病毒组装纳米线。当你的光照耀他们，你可以看到它们冒泡。在这种情况下，你看到的氧气泡出来。而基本上是由基因控制的，你可以控制多个材料，提高设备性能。
最后一个例子是太阳能电池。你也可以用太阳能电池的。我们已经能够拿起病毒工程师碳纳米管，然后他们身边成长二氧化钛 - 并以此作为获得通过设备电子方式。而现在我们发现的是，通过基因工程，我们实际上可以增加这些太阳能电池的效率记录对染料敏化系统，这些类型的数字。而且我带了其中的一个，你也可以发挥后与外界左右。因此，这是一种病毒为基础的太阳能电池。通过进化和选择，我们从百分之八到太阳能电池效率的太阳能电池效率11个百分点。
因此，我希望我相信你，有一个伟大的，很多有趣的东西需要学习如何使材料的性质 - 并考虑到下一个步骤，看看是否能生效，或者您是否可以利用如何使材料的性质，作出这样的性质还没有作出梦寐以求的事情。
谢谢。


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Angela Belcher: Using nature to grow batteries
I thought I would talk a little bit about how nature makes materials. I brought along with me an abalone shell. This abalone shell is a biocomposite material that's 98 percent by mass calcium carbonate and two percent by mass protein. Yet, it's 3,000 times tougher than its geological counterpart. And a lot of people might use structures like abalone shells, like chalk. I've been fascinated by how nature makes materials, and there's a lot of sequence to how they do such an exquisite job. Part of it is that these materials are macroscopic in structure, but they're formed at the nanoscale. They're formed at the nanoscale, and they use proteins that are coded by the genetic level that allow them to build these really exquisite structures.

So something I think is very fascinating is what if you could give life to non-living structures, like batteries and like solar cells? What if they had some of the same capabilities that an abalone shell did, in terms of being able to build really exquisite structures at room temperature and room pressure, using non-toxic chemicals and adding no toxic materials back into the environment? So that's the vision that I've been thinking about. And so what if you could grow a battery in a petri dish? Or, what if you could give genetic information to a battery so that it could actually become better as a function of time, and do so in an environmentally friendly way?

And so, going back to this abalone shell, besides being nano-structured, one thing that's fascinating, is when a male and a female abalone get together, they pass on the genetic information that says, "This is how to build an exquisite material. Here's how to do it at room temperature and pressure, using non-toxic materials." Same with diatoms, which are shone right here, which are glasseous structures. Every time the diatoms replicate, they give the genetic information that says, "Here's how to build glass in the ocean that's perfectly nano-structured. And you can do it the same, over and over again." So what if you could do the same thing with a solar cell or a battery? I like to say my favorite biomaterial is my four year-old.

But anyone who's ever had, or knows, small children knows they're incredibly complex organisms. And so if you wanted to convince them to do something they don't want to do, it's very difficult. So when we think about future technologies, we actually think of using bacteria and virus, simple organisms. Can you convince them to work with a new tool box, so that they can build a structure that will be important to me?

Also, we think about future technologies. We start with the beginning of Earth. Basically, it took a billion years to have life on Earth. And very rapidly, they became multi-cellular, they could replicate, they could use photosynthesis as a way of getting their energy source. But it wasn't until about 500 million years ago -- during the Cambrian geologic time period -- that organisms in the ocean started making hard materials. Before that they were all soft, fluffy structures. And it was during this time that there was increased calcium and iron and silicon in the environment. And organisms learned how to make hard materials. And so that's what I would like be able to do -- convince biology to work with the rest of the periodic table.

Now if you look at biology, there's many structures like DNA and antibodies and proteins and ribosomes that you've heard about that are already nano-structured. So nature already gives us really exquisite structures on the nanoscale. What if we could harness them and convince them to not be an antibody that does something like HIV? But what if we could convince them to build a solar cell for us? So here are some examples: these are some natural shells.

There are natural biological materials. The abalone shell here -- and if you fracture it, you can look at the fact that it's nano-structured. There's diatoms made out of SIO2, and they're magnetotactic bacteria that make small, single-domain magnets used for navigation. What all these have in common is these materials are structured at the nanoscale, and they have a DNA sequence that codes for a protein sequence, that gives them the blueprint to be able to build these really wonderful structures. Now, going back to the abalone shell, the abalone makes this shell by having these proteins. These proteins are very negatively charged. And they can pull calcium out of the environment, put down a layer of calcium and then carbonate, calcium and carbonate. It has the chemical sequences of amino acids which says, "This is how to build the structure. Here's the DNA sequence, here's the protein sequence in order to do it." And so an interesting idea is, what if you could take any material that you wanted, or any element on the periodic table, and find its corresponding DNA sequence, then code it for a corresponding protein sequence to build a structure, but not build an abalone shell -- build something that, through nature, it has never had the opportunity to work with yet.

And so here's the periodic table. And I absolutely love the periodic table. Every year for the incoming freshman class at MIT, I have a periodic table made that says, "Welcome to MIT. Now you're in your element." And you flip it over, and it's the amino acids with the PH at which they have different charges. And so I give this out to thousands of people. And I know it says MIT, and this is Caltech, but I have a couple extra if people want it. And I was really fortunate to have President Obama visit my lab this year on his visit to MIT, and I really wanted to give him a periodic table. So I stayed up at night, and I talked to my husband, "How do I give President Obama a periodic table? What if he says, 'Oh, I already have one,' or, 'I've already memorized it'?" And so he came to visit my lab and looked around -- it was a great visit. And then afterward, I said, "Sir, I want to give you the periodic table in case you're ever in a bind and need to calculate molecular weight." And I thought molecular weight sounded much less nerdy than molar mass. And so he looked at it, and he said, "Thank you. I'll look at it periodically." (Laughter) (Applause) And later in a lecture that he gave on clean energy, he pulled it out and said, "And people at MIT, they give out periodic tables."

So basically what I didn't tell you is that about 500 million years ago, organisms starter making materials, but it took them about 50 million years to get good at it. It took them about 50 million years to learn how to perfect how to make that abalone shell. And that's a hard sell to a graduate student. "I have this great project -- 50 million years." And so we had to develop a way of trying to do this more rapidly. And so we use a virus that's a non-toxic virus called M13 bacteriophage that's job is to infect bacteria. Well it has a simple DNA structure that you can go in and cut and paste additional DNA sequences into it. And by doing that, it allows the virus to express random protein sequences.

And this is pretty easy biotechnology. And you could basically do this a billion times. And so you can go in and have a billion different viruses that are all genetically identical, but they differ from each other based on their tips, on one sequence that codes for one protein. Now if you take all billion viruses, and you can put them in one drop of liquid, you can force them to interact with anything you want on the periodic table. And through a process of selection evolution, you can pull one of a billion that does something that you'd like it to do, like grow a battery or grow a solar cell.

So basically, viruses can't replicate themselves, they need a host. Once you find that one out of a billion, you infect it into a bacteria, and you make millions and billions of copies of that particular sequence. And so the other thing that's beautiful about biology is that biology gives you really exquisite structures with nice link scales. And these viruses are long and skinny, and we can get them to express the ability to grow something like semiconductors or materials for batteries.

Now this is a high-powered battery that we grew in my lab. We engineered a virus to pick up carbon nanotubes. So one part of the virus grabs a carbon nanotube. The other part of the virus has a sequence that can grow an electrode material for a battery. And then it wires itself to the current collector. And so through a process of selection evolution, we went from having a virus that made a crummy battery to a virus that made a good battery to a virus that made a record-breaking, high-powered battery that's all made at room temperature, basically at the bench top. And that battery went to the White House for a press conference. I brought it here. You can see it in this case -- that's lighting this LED. Now if we could scale this, you could actually use it to run your Prius, which is my dream -- to be able to drive a virus-powered car.

But it's basically -- you can pull one out of a billion. You can make lots of amplifications to it. Basically, you make an amplification in the lab. And then you get it to self-assemble into a structure like a battery. We're able to do this also with catalysis. This is the example of photocatalytic splitting of water. And what we've been able to do is engineer a virus to basically take dye absorbing molecules and line them up on the surface of the virus so it acts as an antenna, and you get an energy transfer across the virus. And then we give it a second gene to grow an inorganic material that can be used to split water into oxygen and hydrogen, that can be used for clean fuels. And I brought an example with me of that today. My students promised me it would work. These are virus-assembled nanowires. When you shine light on them, you can see them bubbling. In this case, you're seeing oxygen bubbles come out. And basically by controlling the genes, you can control multiple materials to improve your device performance.

The last example are solar cells. You can also do this with solar cells. We've been able to engineer viruses to pick up carbon nanotubes and then grow titanium dioxide around them -- and use as a way of getting electrons through the device. And what we've found is that, through genetic engineering, we can actually increase the efficiencies of these solar cells to record numbers for these types of dye-sensitized systems. And I brought one of those as well that you can play around with outside afterward. So this is a virus-based solar cell. Through evolution and selection, we took it from an eight percent efficiency solar cell to an 11 percent efficiency solar cell.

So I hope that I've convinced you that there's a lot of great, interesting things to be learned about how nature makes materials -- and taking it to the next step to see if you can force, or whether you can take advantage of how nature makes materials, to make things that nature hasn't yet dreamed of making.

Thank you.